Piaget Cognitive Stages of Development

The Sensorimotor Stage

At the beginning of the sensorimotor stage, infants live in the present without a mental representation of the world, lacking a sense of object permanence.

If an infant cannot see an object, it does not exist to them; thus, if a toy is hidden from view, the infant will not search for it once it is out of sight.

The primary achievement during the sensorimotor stage is the development of object permanence — the understanding that objects continue to exist even when hidden.

It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e., a schema) of the object.

Towards the end of this stage the general symbolic function begins to appear where children show in their play that they can use one object to stand for another.

Language starts to appear because they realise that words can be used to represent objects and feelings.

The child begins to be able to store information about the world, recall it, and label it.

Individual Differences

• Cultural Practices: In some cultures, babies are carried on their mothers’ backs throughout the day. This constant physical contact and varied stimuli can influence how a child perceives their environment and their sense of object permanence.
• Gender Norms: Toys assigned to babies can differ based on gender expectations. A boy might be given more cars or action figures, while a girl might receive dolls or kitchen sets. This can influence early interactions and sensory explorations.

Learn More: The Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development

By 2 years, children have made some progress toward detaching their thoughts from the physical world. However, have not yet developed logical (or “operational”) thought characteristics of later stages.

Thinking is still intuitive (based on subjective judgments about situations) and egocentric (centered on the child’s own view of the world).

Individual Differences

• Cultural Storytelling: Different cultures have unique stories, myths, and folklore. Children from diverse backgrounds might understand and interpret symbolic elements differently based on their cultural narratives.
• Race & Representation: A child’s racial identity can influence how they engage in pretend play. For instance, a lack of diverse representation in media and toys might lead children of color to recreate scenarios that don’t reflect their experiences or background.

Learn More: The Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development

The stage is called concrete because children can think logically much more successfully if they can manipulate real (concrete) materials or pictures of them.

Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child’s cognitive development because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought.

This means the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than physically try things out in the real world).

Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9). Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance changes.

But operational thought is only effective here if the child is asked to reason about materials that are physically present.

Children at this stage will tend to make mistakes or be overwhelmed when asked to reason about abstract or hypothetical problems.

Individual Differences

• Cultural Context in Conservation Tasks: In a society where resources are scarce, children might demonstrate conservation skills earlier due to the cultural emphasis on preserving and reusing materials.
• Gender & Learning: Stereotypes about gender abilities, like “boys are better at math,” can influence how children approach logical problems or classify objects based on perceived gender norms.

Learn More: The Concrete Operational Stage of Development

From about 12 years, children can follow the form of a logical argument without reference to its content. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and logically test hypotheses.

This stage sees the emergence of scientific thinking, formulating abstract theories and hypotheses when faced with a problem.

Educators should encourage abstract reasoning through debates, hypothesis testing, and complex problem-solving tasks. Discussions involving ethics, societal issues, or hypothetical scenarios can support higher-order thinking.

Individual Differences

• Culture & Abstract Thinking: Cultures emphasize different kinds of logical or abstract thinking. For example, in societies with a strong oral tradition, the ability to hold complex narratives might develop prominently.
• Gender & Ethics: Discussions about morality and ethics can be influenced by gender norms. For instance, in some cultures, girls might be encouraged to prioritize community harmony, while boys might be encouraged to prioritize individual rights.

Learn More: The Formal Operational Stage of Development

Piaget’s Theory

1. Genetic Epistemology

Piaget’s theory is rooted in his philosophy of genetic epistemology, emphasizing how knowledge evolves from basic sensory experiences to abstract reasoning.

Genetic epistemology is a theory of knowledge developed by Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, focusing on how human beings acquire, develop, and structure knowledge.

The term “genetic” here doesn’t refer to genes or heredity, but rather to “genesis”, meaning the origins and developmental processes through which knowledge emerges.

Core Ideas of Genetic Epistemology:

• Constructivist Approach to Learning: Children actively build understanding by exploring their environment as “little scientists,” rather than passively absorbing information.

• Developmental Approach: Knowledge arises through developmental stages, not simply through the accumulation of facts.

• Active Learning: Individuals actively construct knowledge by interacting with their environment, rather than passively absorbing it.

• Cognitive Structures (Schemas): Knowledge consists of structures or mental schemas that evolve over time through a balance of assimilation (integrating new information into existing schemas) and accommodation (altering schemas to accommodate new experiences).

2. History of Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Piaget was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to develop French versions of questions on English intelligence tests.

He became intrigued with the reasons children gave for their wrong answers to the questions that required logical thinking.

He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important differences between the thinking of adults and children.

Piaget branched out on his own with a new set of assumptions about children’s intelligence:

• Children’s intelligence differs from an adult’s in quality rather than in quantity. This means that children reason (think) differently from adults and see the world in different ways.
• Children actively build up their knowledge about the world. They are not passive creatures waiting for someone to fill their heads with knowledge.
• The best way to understand children’s reasoning is to see things from their point of view.

Piaget did not want to measure how well children could count, spell, or solve problems as a way of grading their I.Q.

He was more interested in how fundamental concepts emerged, such as the very ideas of number, time, quantity, causality, and justice.

Piaget studied children from infancy to adolescence using naturalistic observation of his own three babies and sometimes controlled observation too. From these, he wrote diary descriptions charting their development.

He also used clinical interviews and observations of older children who were able to understand questions and hold conversations.

3. Piaget’s Clinical Method

Piaget’s clinical method is a research technique used to investigate children’s cognitive development.

It is a research approach for understanding children’s thinking that Piaget adapted from the diagnostic clinical interview used in psychopathology.

Unlike standardized tests, the clinical method uses flexible, open-ended questions to explore the child’s thinking in depth.

The interviewer adapts their questions based on the child’s initial responses, prompting further explanation and clarification.

Key characteristics of the clinical method:

• Piaget’s method emphasizes the importance of understanding the child’s perspective, rather than imposing adult ways of thinking on them.
• One key aspect of this approach is the use of open-ended and non-judgmental questions that allow the child to express their thoughts freely. The questions should be based on the spontaneous questions asked by children of the same age or younger.
• The interviewer must carefully observe the child’s responses and follow up with additional questions to clarify their reasoning.
• The interviewer must also be able to distinguish between truly spontaneous responses and those that are influenced by suggestion or other external factors.

Piaget provided detailed criteria for evaluating the quality of children’s responses, emphasizing the need to consider factors like resistance to suggestion, the depth of the child’s thinking, and the consistency of the response over time

Piaget’s clinical method has been influential in the field of developmental psychology and has helped to shape the way researchers and educators understand children’s thinking.

What is the “critical method” and how does it differ from the clinical method?

4. Piaget’s Theory Differs From Others In Several Ways:

Piaget’s (1936, 1950) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world.

He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process that occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment.

Children’s ability to understand, think about, and solve problems in the world develops in a stop-start, discontinuous manner (rather than gradual changes over time).

Piaget’s theory:

• Is concerned with children, rather than learners of all ages.
• Focuses on development, rather than learning per se, so it does not address the learning of information or specific behaviors.
• Proposes discrete stages of development, marked by qualitative differences, rather than a gradual increase in the number and complexity of behaviors, concepts, ideas, etc.

The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant, and then the child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypotheses.

To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience.

Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.

5. Schemas

A schema is a mental framework or concept that helps us organize and interpret information. It’s like a mental file folder where we store knowledge about a particular object, event, or concept.

According to Piaget (1952), schemas are fundamental building blocks of cognitive development. They are constantly being created, modified, and reorganized as we interact with the world.

Wadsworth (2004) suggests that schemata (the plural of schema) be thought of as “index cards” filed in the brain, each one telling an individual how to react to incoming stimuli or information.

According to Piaget, we are born with a few primitive schemas, such as sucking, which give us the means to interact with the world. These initial schemas are physical, but as the child develops, they become mental schemas.

Examples of Innate Schemas:

• Babies have a sucking reflex, triggered by something touching their lips. This corresponds to a “sucking schema.”
• The grasping reflex, elicited when something touches the palm of a baby’s hand, represents another innate schema.
• The rooting reflex, where a baby turns its head towards something that touches its cheek, is also considered an innate schema.

When Piaget discussed the development of a person’s mental processes, he referred to increases in the number and complexity of the schemata that the person had learned.

Operations are more sophisticated mental structures that allow us to combine schemas in a logical (reasonable) way. For example, picking up a rattle would combine three schemas, gazing, reaching and grasping.

As children grow, they can carry out more complex operations and begin to imagine hypothetical (imaginary) situations.

Operations are learned through interaction with other people and the environment, and they represent a key advancement in cognitive development beyond simple schemas.

As children grow and interact with their environment, these basic schemas become more complex and numerous, and new schemas are developed through the processes of assimilation and accommodation.

6. The Process of Adaptation

Jean Piaget (1952) viewed intellectual growth as a process of adaptation (adjustment) to the world.

This happens through assimilation, accommodation, equilibration, and disequilibrium.

• Equilibration, the mechanism balancing assimilation and accommodation, drives cognitive growth and transition between developmental stages according to Piaget.
• Assimilation is fitting new information into existing schemas without changing one’s understanding. For example,  a child who has only seen small dogs might call a cat a “dog” due to similar features like fur, four legs, and a tail.
• Accommodation occurs when existing schemas must be revised to incorporate new information. For instance, a child who believes all animals have four legs would need to accommodate their schema upon seeing a snake.
• A baby tries to use the same grasping schema to pick up a very small object. It doesn’t work. The baby then changes (accommodates) the schema using the forefinger and thumb to pick up the object.

When a child’s existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive around it, it is said to be in a state of equilibrium, i.e., a state of cognitive (i.e., mental) balance.

Disequilibrium occurs when new information conflicts with existing schemas, creating cognitive discomfort. This cognitive conflict drives cognitive development and learning.

Example

When encountering new information, a child first attempts to assimilate it into existing schemas.

If assimilation fails, disequilibrium occurs, prompting the need for accommodation.

Through accommodation, the child adjusts their schemas to restore equilibrium.

This cycle continues, driving cognitive development in a non-linear fashion – progressing through “leaps and bounds” rather than at a steady rate.

Importance of Equilibration:

Equilibration acts as a regulatory mechanism, balancing assimilation and accommodation. This balance is crucial because:

• Constant assimilation without accommodation would prevent the learning of new concepts.
• Constant accommodation without assimilation would make every experience seem novel, leading to cognitive exhaustion.

By maintaining this balance, equilibration facilitates cognitive growth, allowing children to build increasingly complex and accurate mental representations of the world.

Applications to Education

Think of old black-and-white films you’ve seen where children sat in rows at desks with inkwells.

They learned by rote, all chanting in unison in response to questions set by an authoritarian figure like Miss Trunchbull in Matilda.

Children who were unable to keep up were seen as slacking and would be punished by variations on the theme of corporal punishment. Yes, it really did happen and in some parts of the world still does today.

Piaget is partly responsible for the change that occurred during the 1960s to early children’s education.

“Children should be able to do their own experimenting and their own research. Teachers, of course, can guide them by providing appropriate materials, but the essential thing is that in order for a child to understand something, he must construct it himself, he must re-invent it. Every time we teach a child something, we keep him from inventing it himself. On the other hand that which we allow him to discover by himself will remain with him visibly”.

Piaget (1972, p. 27)

Plowden Report 

In the 1960s, the Plowden Committee investigated deficiencies in United Kingdom education and incorporated many of Piaget’s ideas into its final report, published in 1967.

This was notable because Piaget’s (1952) work was not originally designed for educational applications.

The report made three key recommendations based on Piaget’s theories:

1. Age-appropriate learning: The report recommended that educational activities and content should be tailored to match children’s cognitive developmental stages as outlined by Piaget. This meant ensuring that learning tasks were appropriate for the child’s current level of thinking and understanding.
2. Concrete experiences: Following Piaget’s emphasis on the importance of concrete experiences in learning, especially for younger children, the report advocated for hands-on, experiential learning opportunities. This included recommendations for more practical activities and the use of manipulatives in the classroom.
3. Active learning: The report emphasized the importance of children being active participants in their own learning, rather than passive recipients of information. This aligns with Piaget’s view that children construct their own understanding through interaction with their environment

The Plowden Report emphasized several recurring themes aligned with Piaget’s work:

• Individual learning
• Curriculum flexibility
• The central role of play in children’s learning
• Utilizing the environment for learning
• Discovery-based learning
• Assessment of children’s progress

Importantly, the report cautioned that teachers should “not assume that only what is measurable is valuable,” encouraging a holistic approach to assessing children’s development.

Educational Strategies Based on Piaget’s Theory

Teachers should encourage students to take an active role in discovering and constructing knowledge. The teacher’s role is to facilitate learning rather than direct tuition.

Because Piaget’s theory is based upon biological maturation and stages, the notion of “readiness” is important. Readiness concerns when certain information or concepts should be taught.

According to Piaget’s theory, children should not be taught certain concepts until they have reached the appropriate stage of cognitive development.

Consequently, education should be stage-specific, with curricula developed to match the age and stage of thinking of the child. For example, abstract concepts like algebra or atomic structure are not suitable for primary school children.

Assimilation and accommodation require an active learner, not a passive one, because problem-solving skills cannot be taught, they must be discovered (Piaget, 1958).

Therefore, teachers should encourage the following within the classroom:

1. Consider the stages of cognitive development: Educational programs should be designed to correspond to Piaget’s stages of development. For example, a child in the concrete operational stage should not be taught abstract concepts and should be given concrete aid such as tokens to count with.
2. Provide concrete experiences before abstract concepts: Especially for younger children, ensure they have hands-on experiences with concepts before introducing more abstract representations.
3. Provide challenges that promote growth without causing frustration: Devising situations that present useful problems and create disequilibrium in the child.
4. Focus on the process of learning rather than the end product: Instead of checking if children have the right answer, the teacher should focus on the students’ understanding and the processes they used to arrive at the answer.
5. Encourage active learning: Learning must be active (discovery learning). Children should be encouraged to discover for themselves and to interact with the material instead of being given ready-made knowledge. Using active methods that require rediscovering or reconstructing “truths.”
6. Foster social interaction: Using collaborative, as well as individual activities (so children can learn from each other). Implement cooperative learning activities, such as group problem-solving tasks or role-playing scenarios.
7. Differentiated teaching: Adapt lessons to suit the needs of the individual child. For example, observe a child’s ability to classify objects by color, shape, and size. If they can easily sort by one attribute but struggle with multiple attributes, tailor future activities to gradually increase complexity, such as sorting buttons first by color, then by color and size together.
8. Providing support for the “spontaneous research” of the child: Provide opportunities and resources for children to explore topics of their own interest, encouraging their natural curiosity and self-directed learning. Create a “Wonder Wall” in the classroom where children can post questions about topics that interest them. 

Classroom Activities

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years):

   Although most kids in this age range are not in a traditional classroom setting, they can still benefit from games that stimulate their senses and motor skills.

   • Object Permanence Games: Play peek-a-boo or hide toys under a blanket to help babies understand that objects still exist even when they can’t see them.
   • Sensory Play: Activities like water play, sand play, or playdough encourage exploration through touch.
   • Imitation: Children at this age love to imitate adults. Use imitation as a way to teach new skills.

2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years):

   • Role Playing: Set up pretend play areas where children can act out different scenarios, such as a kitchen, hospital, or market.
   • Use of Symbols: Encourage drawing, building, and using props to represent other things.
   • Hands-on Activities: Children should interact physically with their environment, so provide plenty of opportunities for hands-on learning.
   • Egocentrism Activities: Use exercises that highlight different perspectives. For instance, having two children sit across from each other with an object in between and asking them what the other sees.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years):

   • Classification Tasks: Provide objects or pictures to group, based on various characteristics.
   • Hands-on Experiments: Introduce basic science experiments where they can observe cause and effect, like a simple volcano with baking soda and vinegar.
   • Logical Games: Board games, puzzles, and logic problems help develop their thinking skills.
   • Conservation Tasks: Use experiments to showcase that quantity doesn’t change with alterations in shape, such as the classic liquid conservation task using differently shaped glasses.

4. Formal Operational Stage (11 years and older):

   • Hypothesis Testing: Encourage students to make predictions and test them out.
   • Abstract Thinking: Introduce topics that require abstract reasoning, such as algebra or ethical dilemmas.
   • Problem Solving: Provide complex problems and have students work on solutions, integrating various subjects and concepts.
   • Debate and Discussion: Encourage group discussions and debates on abstract topics, highlighting the importance of logic and evidence.
   • Feedback and Questioning: Use open-ended questions to challenge students and promote higher-order thinking. For instance, rather than asking, “Is this the right answer?”, ask, “How did you arrive at this conclusion?”

Individual Differences In Learning

While Piaget’s stages offer a foundational framework, they are not universally experienced in the same way by all children.

Social identities play a critical role in shaping cognitive development, necessitating a more nuanced and culturally responsive approach to understanding child development.

Piaget’s stages may manifest differently based on social identities like race, gender, and culture:

• Race & Teacher Interactions: A child’s race can influence teacher expectations and interactions. For example, racial biases can lead to children of color being perceived as less capable or more disruptive, influencing their cognitive challenges and support.
• Racial and Cultural Stereotypes: These can affect a child’s self-perception and self-efficacy. For instance, stereotypes about which racial or cultural groups are “better” at certain subjects can influence a child’s self-confidence and, subsequently, their engagement in that subject.
• Gender & Peer Interactions: Children learn gender roles from their peers. Boys might be mocked for playing “girl games,” and girls might be excluded from certain activities, influencing their cognitive engagements.
• Language: Multilingual children might navigate the stages differently, especially if their home language differs from their school language. The way concepts are framed in different languages can influence cognitive processing. Cultural idioms and metaphors can shape a child’s understanding of concepts and their ability to use symbolic representation, especially in the pre-operational stage.

Overcoming Challenges and Barriers in Implementing Piagetian Strategies

Balancing play and curriculum

• Purposeful Play: Ensuring that play is not just free time but a structured learning experience requires careful planning. Educators must identify clear learning objectives and create play environments that facilitate these goals.
• Alignment with Standards: Striking a balance between child-initiated play and curriculum expectations can be challenging. Educators need to find ways to integrate play-based learning with broader educational goals and standards.
• Pace of Learning: The curriculum’s focus on specific content by certain ages can create pressure to accelerate student learning, potentially contradicting Piaget’s notion of developmental stages. Teachers should regularly assess students’ understanding to identify areas where they need more support or challenge.
• Assessment Focus: The emphasis on standardized testing can shift the focus from process-oriented learning (as Piaget advocated) to outcome-based teaching. Educators should use assessments that reflect real-world tasks and allow students to demonstrate their understanding in multiple ways.

Parents

• Parental Expectations: Some parents may have misconceptions about play-based learning, believing it to be less rigorous than traditional instruction. Educators may need to address these concerns and communicate the value of play. 
• Parental Involvement: Involving parents in understanding Piaget’s theory can foster consistency between home and school environments. Providing resources and information to parents about child development can empower them to support their child’s learning at home.

Other challenges

• Individual Differences: Piaget emphasized individual differences in cognitive development, but classrooms often have diverse learners. Meeting the needs of all students while maintaining a play-based approach can be demanding.
• Time Constraints: In some educational settings, there may be pressure to cover specific content or prepare students for standardized tests. Prioritizing play-based learning within these constraints can be difficult.
• Cultural Sensitivity: Recognizing and respecting cultural differences is essential. Piaget’s theory may need to be adapted to fit the specific cultural context of the children being taught.

Can Piaget’s Ideas Be Applied to Children with Special Educational Needs and Disabilities?

Yes, Piaget’s ideas can be adapted to support children with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND), though with important considerations:

1. Individualized Approach: Tailor learning experiences to each child’s unique strengths, needs, and interests, recognizing that development may not follow typical patterns or timelines (Daniels & Diack, 1977).
2. Concrete Learning Experiences: Provide hands-on, multisensory activities to support concept exploration, particularly beneficial for children with learning difficulties or sensory impairments (Lee & Zentall, 2012).
3. Gradual Scaffolding: Break down tasks into manageable steps and provide appropriate support to help children progress through developmental stages at their own pace (Morra & Borella, 2015).
4. Flexible Assessment: Modify Piagetian tasks to accommodate different abilities and communication methods, using multiple assessment approaches.
5. Strengths-Based Focus: Emphasize children’s capabilities rather than deficits, using Piaget’s concepts to identify and build upon existing cognitive strengths.
6. Interdisciplinary Approach: Combine Piagetian insights with specialized knowledge from fields like occupational therapy and speech-language pathology.

While Piaget’s theory offers valuable insights, it should be part of a broader, evidence-based approach that recognizes the diverse factors influencing development in children with SEND.

Social Media (Digital Learning)

Jean Piaget could not have anticipated the expansive digital age we now live in.

Today, knowledge dissemination and creation are democratized by the Internet, with platforms like blogs, wikis, social media, and generative AI allowing for vast collaboration and shared knowledge. This development has prompted a reimagining of the future of education.

Classrooms, traditionally seen as primary sites of learning, are being overshadowed by the rise of mobile technologies and platforms like MOOCs (Passey, 2013).

The millennial generation, the first to grow up with cable TV, the internet, and cell phones, relies heavily on technology.

They view it as an integral part of their identity, with most using it extensively in their daily lives, from keeping in touch with loved ones to consuming news and entertainment (Nielsen, 2014).

Social media platforms offer a dynamic environment conducive to Piaget’s principles. These platforms allow interactions that nurture knowledge evolution through cognitive processes like assimilation and accommodation.

They emphasize communal interaction and shared activity, fostering both cognitive and socio-cultural constructivism. This shared activity promotes understanding and exploration beyond individual perspectives, enhancing social-emotional learning (Gehlbach, 2010).

A standout advantage of social media in an educational context is its capacity to extend beyond traditional classroom confines. As the material indicates, these platforms can foster more inclusive learning, bridging diverse learner groups.

This inclusivity can equalize learning opportunities, potentially diminishing biases based on factors like race or socio-economic status, resonating with Kegan’s (1982) concept of “recruitability.”

However, there are challenges. While social media’s potential in learning is vast, its practical application necessitates intention and guidance.

Cuban, Kirkpatrick, and Peck (2001) note that certain educators and students are hesitant about integrating social media into educational contexts.

This hesitancy can stem from technological complexities or potential distractions. Yet, when harnessed effectively, social media can provide a rich environment for collaborative learning and interpersonal development, fostering a deeper understanding of content.

In essence, the rise of social media aligns seamlessly with constructivist philosophies.

Social media platforms act as tools for everyday cognition, merging daily social interactions with the academic world, and providing avenues for diverse, interactive, and engaging learning experiences.