Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
. 2021 Jul 14;16(7):e0253704.
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0253704. eCollection 2021.

A hitchhiker guide to manta rays: Patterns of association between Mobula alfredi, M. birostris, their symbionts, and other fishes in the Maldives

Aimee E Nicholson-Jack  1   2 , Joanna L Harris  1   3 , Kirsty Ballard  1 , Katy M E Turner  2 , Guy M W Stevens  1
Affiliations

A hitchhiker guide to manta rays: Patterns of association between Mobula alfredi, M. birostris, their symbionts, and other fishes in the Maldives

Aimee E Nicholson-Jack et al. PLoS One. .

Abstract

Despite being among the largest and most charismatic species in the marine environment, considerable gaps remain in our understanding of the behavioural ecology of manta rays (Mobula alfredi, M. birostris). Manta rays are often sighted in association with an array of smaller hitchhiker fish species, which utilise their hosts as a sanctuary for shelter, protection, and the sustenance they provide. Species interactions, rather than the species at the individual level, determine the ecological processes that drive community dynamics, support biodiversity and ecosystem health. Thus, understanding the associations within marine communities is critical to implementing effective conservation and management. However, the underlying patterns between manta rays, their symbionts, and other hitchhiker species remain elusive. Here, we explore the spatial and temporal variation in hitchhiker presence with M. alfredi and M. birostris throughout the Maldives and investigate the factors which may influence association using generalised linear mixed effects models (GLMM). For the first time, associations between M. alfredi and M. birostris with hitchhiker species other than those belonging to the family Echeneidae are described. A variation in the species of hitchhiker associated with M. alfredi and M. birostris was identified, with sharksucker remora (Echeneis naucrates) and giant remora (Remora remora) being the most common, respectively. Spatiotemporal variation in the presence of manta rays was identified as a driver for the occurrence of ephemeral hitchhiker associations. Near-term pregnant female M. alfredi, and M. alfredi at cleaning stations, had the highest likelihood of an association with adult E. naucrates. Juvenile E. naucrates were more likely to be associated with juvenile M. alfredi, and a seasonal trend in E. naucrates host association was identified. Remora were most likely to be present with female M. birostris, and a mean number of 1.5 ± 0.5 R. remora were observed per M. birostris. It is hoped these initial findings will serve as the basis for future work into the complex relationships between manta rays and their hitchhikers.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Figures

Fig 1
Fig 1. A map of the Maldives archipelago located to the southwest of India.
Diagram shows the 26 geographical atolls illustrated in green.
Fig 2
Fig 2. Images of hitchhiker species used for identification.
(A) black trevally (Caranx lugubris), (B) bluefin trevally (Caranx melampygus), (C) giant trevally (Caranx ignobilis), (D) golden trevally (Gnathanodon speciosus), (E) pilot fish (Naucrates doctor), (F) rainbow runner (Elagatis bipinnulata), (G) sharksucker remora (Echeneis naucrates) (juvenile inset), (H) giant remora (Remora remora), (I) little remora (Remora albescens), (J) cobia (Rachycentron canadum), (K) red snapper (Lutjanus bohar), and (L) Chinese trumpetfish (Aulostomus chinensis). All images © The Manta Trust.
Fig 3
Fig 3. Total presence of hitchhiker species observed with manta rays.
The total number of sightings where each identified hitchhiker species (n = 12) was observed with Mobula alfredi (black) or M. birostris (grey). A (10+1) transformation was used for better visualisation of the data.
Fig 4
Fig 4. Daily mean number of adult Echeneis naucrates (+SE) observed with Mobula alfredi between category groups.
Each category is coloured as per legend with group name below each bar. Letters above each bar correspond to those in brackets after the group name and indicate the groups with a significant difference (p < 0.001).
Fig 5
Fig 5. Daily mean number of juvenile Echeneis naucrates (+SE) observed with Mobula alfredi between category groups.
Each category is coloured as per legend with group name below each bar. Letters above each bar correspond to those in brackets after the group name and indicate the groups with a significant difference (p < 0.001).
Fig 6
Fig 6. Heatmaps coloured by season and percentage of sightings where Echeneis naucrates were present.
Includes feeding areas and cleaning stations with > 10 E. naucrates sightings.
Fig 7
Fig 7. Time series plot showing Mobula alfredi sightings and Echeneis naucrates presence.
The total monthly number of Mobula alfredi sightings 2008–2019, and the percentage of those that had Echeneis naucrates associations.
Fig 8
Fig 8. Relationship between hitchhiker species presence and significant explanatory variables (p < 0.05) in terms of odds ratio (OR).
Indicates the likelihood of presence in comparison with the reference category shown in the legend. OR values are plotted with 95% confidence intervals (CI; solid horizontal lines). Where the CI does not span 1, the explanatory variable is significantly more likely when OR > 1, and significantly less likely when OR < 1. (A) Mobula alfredi and Echeneis naucrates, (B) M. alfredi and juvenile E. naucrates, (C) M. alfredi and Lutjanus bohar, (D) M. alfredi and Gnathanodon speciosus presence, and (E) M. birostris and Remora remora.
Fig 9
Fig 9. Daily mean number of Remora remora (+SE) observed with Mobula birostris between category groups.
Each category is coloured as per legend with group name below each bar. Letters above each bar correspond to those in brackets after the group name and indicate the groups with a significant difference (p < 0.001).
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Similar articles

See all similar articles

Cited by

  • Hitchhiking to the abyss.
    Fontes J, Castellano-González G, Macena BCL, Afonso P. Fontes J, et al. Ecol Evol. 2023 May 28;13(5):e10126. doi: 10.1002/ece3.10126. eCollection 2023 May. Ecol Evol. 2023. PMID: 37255846 Free PMC article.

References

    1. Dimijian GG. Evolving Together: The Biology of Symbiosis, Part 1. Baylor Univ Med Cent Proc. 2000;13. doi: 10.1080/08998280.2000.11927678 - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Dougal AE. Symbiotic interactions. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1994. doi: 10.1259/0007-1285-67-800-813 - DOI
    1. Paracer S, Ahmadjian V. Symbiosis: an introduction to biological associations. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2000.
    1. Castro P. Animal symbioses in coral reef communities: a review. Symbiosis. 1988;5: 161–184.
    1. Auster PJ, Estes JA, Coleman FC. Species interactions in marine communities: the invisible fabric of nature. Bull Mar Sci. 2013;89(1): 3–9. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1305853111 - DOI - PMC - PubMed

Publication types